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As the seasons begin to change in most places, we would like to see and hear about the wildlife you’ve discovered in your area

Wherever you are in the world and however professional or amateur your photography set up, we would like to see your images of the wildlife living near you.

If you’re short of inspiration, have a look at some of the amazing images shared by readers around the world last month via GuardianWitness here. We regularly print readers’ best images in the Guardian newspaper and will let you know if your image should feature.

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To achieve climate agreement’s limit of 2C rise, pricing will have to increase to more than $100 a tonne, says Schroders

More than $1.5tn (£1.2tn) in company profits worldwide could be erased by taxes required to meet the Paris climate agreement, according to analysis by Schroders.

In a stark warning to investors to back more sustainable companies, the fund management group said total earnings of 12,500 global companies could fall by 20% were the world to limit itself to the 2C temperature rise target agreed in Paris through higher taxes. Schroders found prices in emissions trading would need to rise to “well over” $100 a tonne of CO2e from current levels, about $5, to encourage the move away from fossil fuels on the scale that was needed.

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A small community on the island of Sumatra is at the heart of a battle for traditional territories that could finally resolve the muddled and exploitative system of laws governing land ownership in Indonesia

It is cold and late on the Indonesian island of Sumatra. Huddled around a map, a group of elders are planning their battle strategy. In a milestone victory last year, they were promised rights to the land their village has controlled for generations, but today they have had bad news. The local inspector wants to slice off a piece of the forest where they harvest benzoin – a substance like frankincense – and give it to a large pulp company. They see this as a betrayal.

The elders debate in a mix of languages – Batak and bahasa Indonesia – while sipping tea and planning how they will resume the fight the next day. For years now, almost every day has involved this kind of planning.

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No one will be surprised if AEMO projects a potential problem this summer in reports to be released this week.

PIAC’s Energy + Water Consumers Advocacy Program (EWCAP) has welcomed the NSW electricity bill relief package, announced yesterday

The key issue at moment around LGC prices remains the commissioning dates for new fleet of wind and solar generation.

Regulator report cites seven different occasions where Australia's big energy players used market power to push up prices nearly 100-fold. No wonder South Australia has pushed for Tesla big battery, which is likely to be able to smash this cartel, despite being derided by the Coalition.

With $50m in backing from Future Super, new debt fund taps renewable energy "sweet spot" – including small to medium solar projects with no PPAs.

AEMO report will be critical to design of policy and market rules, but wind and solar industry fear they are going to be unfairly penalised, when it is the fossil fuel fleet causing much risk to the energy system.

Ecclesall Wood, Sheffield A close-up look at these birds – which have evolved to be invisible in domains such as this – was proving elusive

A new noise stopped me dead in my tracks; a sort of pulse-quickening, primitive shriek, more banshee wail than bird call. Through the still-bare March treetops I saw the source of the sound barrel straight overhead – my first thrilling glimpse of sparrowhawk in this neck of Ecclesall Wood, near my home.

In the long light of a clear May evening came a second sighting, not far from the first; a revelatory 10 minutes of spectacular aerobatics in the full view of Ecclesall Road South, the bird’s fluidity of movement spellbinding.

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Defying the policy uncertainty that has held back utility-scale solar in Australia, much of the new renewables investment is happening in coal country.

Hydro Tasmania expects to run the Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT) at the Tamar Valley Power Station Tuesday 5 September, 2017.

The Andrews Labor Government is helping businesses reduce their energy costs through a range of programs that support long term sustainability and jobs growth.

A rare native night bird makes a comeback; we turn beach coconuts into crunchy chips; go snail farming in Victoria; and meet 92-year-old former vegetable grower, turned machinery collector, Bill Ashman.

Draft Emissions Reduction Fund method for Measurement of soil carbon sequestration in agricultural systems released for public consultation. Consultation period closes 2 October 2017.

Draft Emissions Reduction Fund method for Measurement of soil carbon sequestration in agricultural systems released for public consultation. Consultation period closes 2 October 2017.

Australia-founded and managed company Atlantis Resources sets new benchmark for tidal energy with world's first multi-machine deployment in Scotland.

Originally published in the Manchester Guardian on 4 September 1917

September 3
“Woolly bears,” in a fearful hurry, race across the road; they look as if they meant business or feared the wheel of passing vehicle or heedless boot. But the caterpillar knows nothing of danger, but merely acts as heredity has taught it; it must obey laws or go under in the struggle. Most insects need a wide distribution, for too restricted a feeding area may bring famine or degeneration; in one or other of their stages insects must get to a distance from congested districts or from ravaged food-plants. Naturally this distribution or migration takes place with many insects when, in their perfect stage, they are provided with wings, but some moths are slow-flying and lethargic, too busy with nectar-sipping and egg-laying to travel far, and in these the caterpillars make the journeys, getting over as much ground as they can before they find it necessary to spin cocoons.

Related: Why gardeners should protect caterpillars

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It was all the apple's fault: we've been fascinated by poisoned fruit for a long time. Jacob Jordaens (1593–1678), The Fall of Man, via Wikimedia Commons

This is an article from I Have Always Wondered, a new series where readers send in questions they’d like an expert to answer. Send your question to alwayswondered@theconversation.edu.au

Why are some fruits poisonous when the objective of fruit is, presumably, to be eaten so that the seeds can be widely distributed with nutritive manure? – Sev Clarke, Mt Macedon

Poison fruit has captured our imaginations for centuries. Snow White’s death sleep was induced by the evil queen’s gift of a poison-laced apple. It is rumoured that deadly nightshade, a plant with naturally occurring fruit toxins, was used to kill a Roman emperor and halt an invasion of Scotland. A deadly dose of ricin from castor beans was administered to a Bulgarian dissident via the tip of an umbrella.

More recently, scientists have been trying to understand why some fruits are naturally poisonous. From the vain queen’s point of view it makes sense to poison an apple and feed it to the fairest in the land. But why do some plants offer poison fruit that has the potential to harm – or at least deter – fruit-eating animals?

Read more: Little shop of horrors: the Australian plants that can kill you

Fruiting plants and fruit-eating animals have “mutualistic relationships”, where each benefits from the other. Plants need to spread their seeds to colonise new territory, recolonise after disturbance, or avoid the dangers of staying at home (for example, if the parent plant harbours pests).

One way of doing this is to encase seeds in nutritious fruit pulp so that animals eat the fruit, digest the pulp, and later excrete the seeds with a helpful fertilising deposit of manure.

Animal-mediated (as opposed to wind- or water-mediated) seed dispersal can be particularly useful for getting seeds to specific locations. If you’ve ever wondered how parasitic mistletoe plants or strangler figs find their way onto branches high up in trees, fruit-eating birds are the answer. But why poison the pulp?

Birds spreading seeds are vital for many plants, so there has to be a very good reason to risk deterring them with toxic fruit. Matt MacGillivray/Flickr, CC BY Don’t you know that you’re toxic?

First, how do plants poison the pulp? Plants produce a range of chemical compounds, some of which have no apparent function in primary life-maintaining processes and so are called secondary compounds.

Potentially poisonous secondary compounds are produced either in the course of development from seed to adult plant, or in direct response to attacks from plant-eaters.

Poisons in fruit pulp are typically produced during development. Unripe fruit is often toxic to protect immature seeds from attack or premature dispersal, but ripe fruit with mature seeds can also be poisonous.

So how do we explain fruit that remains poisonous even when it’s ripe and ready for dispersal? One theory is that a low level of poison in fruit encourages fruit-eating animals to move away from the parent plant (avoiding additional poison), therefore carrying seeds further away.

In some cases toxins cause constipation, ensuring that seeds stay longer in the gut and so increasing the distance they are carried. In other cases – think of prunes – they act as laxatives to ensure the quick passage of seeds with minimal time for seed damage during digestion.

There is some evidence for these hypotheses, but they’re not the full story.

There’s good fruit-eating and bad fruit-eating

Not everything that eats fruit is good for the plant. Toxins in fruit might specifically target animals, microbes and fungi that damage its seeds, while being non-toxic to species that are good seed dispersers. The fruit of deadly nightshade is lethal to many mammals but apparently harmless to some birds, and Mediterranean buckthorn fruits are toxic to some insect pests but not seed-dispersing birds.

The fruit of deadly nightshade is poisonous to many mammals, but not the birds that carry its seeds. Andreas Rockstein/Flickr, CC BY-SA

But poisons often discourage seed destroyers and dispersers alike, so plants face a trade-off between deterring assailants and attracting the animals that safely disperse their seeds. Research so far suggests that how plants balance this trade-off depends on how long they hold onto fruit.

Highly nutritious and attractive fruit is quickly found and eaten as soon as it’s ripe: think of a plum tree stripped by fruit bats in a night or two. These fruits face less risk of damage before they’re safely eaten by the right animals, so protective toxins are less important and are therefore produced in lower quantities.

On the other hand, plants with less nutritious fruit, rarer or unreliable seed-dispersers, or more predators need to protect their vulnerable seeds with toxic fruit.

Finally, fruit might be poisonous simply because the rest of the plant is toxic. This is another trade-off some plants make: toxins that protect leaves from herbivores can also end up in the fruit.

Recent research suggests that poison fruit may ultimately result from adaptation to a range of animals consuming different plant parts, so we need to consider the whole plant and its interactions with various organisms to understand the origin and function of poison fruit.

Understanding how and why plants produce poison, in their fruit or elsewhere, has led to discoveries that are valuable for reasons other than murder and mayhem. Naturally occurring plant poisons have been used for a range of medical purposes from painkillers to antimalarial and anti-cancer agents, and there are potentially many more useful plant poisons yet to be discovered in the wild.

* Email your question to alwayswondered@theconversation.edu.au
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Julian MacPherson Brown does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond the academic appointment above.

A Snares penguin from islands south of New Zealand is found wounded on a Tasmanian beach. Nine months’ nursing later, she tastes the open sea again

Just before dawn on a still morning in autumn a crowd of people gathers on a beach in southern Tasmania. They watch in tense silence as a small animal shuffles across the sand. This animal, a penguin, has been the focus of nine months of care, liaison and cooperation to get to this moment – she is being released and sent back out into her world. I am privileged to be included in the farewell crew, and share the jubilation and anxiety of the people around me, all of us hoping that she will remember her path home.

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